Series Wadsworth series in speech communication. Classifications Dewey Decimal Class L48 The Physical Object Pagination xiv, p. Community Reviews 0 Feedback? Loading Related Books. December 3, August 10, January 12, Edited by ImportBot.
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Log in. Next product. Add to wishlist. SKU: theories-of-human-communicationth-edition-ebook-pdf Tags: 11e , , , Littlejohn, Karen A. Foss, John G. Like this: Like Loading…. Dalam komunikasi ontologi berpusat pada sifat interaksi sosial manusia. Manusia membuat pilihan yang nyata manakala manusia pada bersifat reaktif dan pasif. Kaum pragmatis memandang, manusia merencanakan perilakunya untuk mencapai tujuan. Manusia mengalami banyak keadaan dalam rentang waktu.
Manusia juga dapat diperkirakan karena menunjukkan karakteristik yang kurang lebih konsisten sepanjang waktu dan manusia tidak dapat dipahami secara terpisah dari hubungannya dengan orang lain dalam kelompok dan kebudayaan. Aksiologi atau pertanyaan tentang nilai Ilmu bersifat netral bebas nilai , begitu pula dengan teori dan penelitian.
Beberapa hal penting dalam konsep: harapan, pelanggaran, perilaku non verbal, menetapkan perilaku, ganjaran. Penjelasan Terdapat 2 jenis penjelasan: 1 kausal; 2 praktis. Kausal Kejadian-kejadian dihubungkan sebagai hubungan sebab akibat, dengan salah satu variabel yang dianggap sebagai hasil atau akibat variabel lainnya 2. Praktis Akibat-akibat terjadi karena tindakan yang dipilih Perbedaan antara penjelasan kausal dan praktis merupakan hal yang penting dalam perdebatan mengenai apa yang harus dilakukan sebuah teori.
Peneliti percaya bawah teori- teori harus menembus penggambaran dan harus memebrikan panduang tindakan praktis, sebuah pendekatan yang membuat penjelasan praktis menjadi penting. Prinsip Prinsip adalah acuan yang memungkinkan untuk mengartikan sebuah kejadian, membuat penilaian mengenai apa yang terjadi dan selanjutnya memutuskan bagaima bertindak dalam situasi tersebut.
Prinsip mempunyai 3 bagian: 1 mengidentifikasi; 2 menyertakan norma dan nilai; 3 menegaskan sebuah hubungan anatara susunan tindakan dan akibat yang mungkin. Prinsip-prinsip membolehkan peneliti untuk merefleksikan pada kualitas tindakan yang diamati dan juga untuk memberikan panduan bagi praktik, tidak seperti penggunaan prinsip-prinsip dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. Pendekatan ini berpengaruh dalam ilmu pengetahuan alam.
Tujuannya untuk menggambarkan dengan tepat cara kehidupan sosial berjalan. Peneliti sangat analitis serta mencoba untuk mendefenisikan setiap bagian dan sub-bagian objek yang diteliti. Konsep Kosnep-konsep biasanya dioperasikan dalam tradisi nemotetik. Pengukuran dinilai berdasarkan 2 kriteria yaitu validitas dan reliabilitas. Validitas adalah tingkatan dimana sebuah pengamatan mengukur apa yang harus diukur. Reliabilitas merupakan tingkatan yang mengukur tingkat susuan dengan akurat dan seringkali diperkirakan dengan konsisten Penjelasan Penjelasan bersifat kausal dalam teori-teori nometetik.
Penjelasan kausal menghasilkan hukum yang melindungi pernyataan-pernyataan teoritis mengenai sebab dan akibat yang relevan dengan susuan variabel tertentu dalam berbagai situasi.
Hukum pelindung memungkinkan peneliti membuat prediksi mengenai kejadian-kejadian di masa depan— untuk menentukan apa yang akan terjadi ketika variavel kausal memainkan perannya. Teori praktis dirancang untuk mengumpulkan banyak perbedaan antar situasi dan untuk memberikan sebuah susuan pemahaman yang memungkinkan peneliti mempertimbangkan rangkaian alternatif tindakan untuk mencapai tujuan. Tindakan bersifat sukarela 2. Pengetahuan Dihasilkan Secara Sosial 3.
Semua teori berhubungan dengan sejarah 4. Teori-teori memengaruhi kenyataan yang ditutupi 5. Teori-teori dibebani tidak pernah netral dari titik teoritis menguntungkan Asumsi Filosopis Teori-teori praktis cendenrung menganggap manusia mengambil sebauh peran aktif dalam menciptakan pengetahuan.
Pengetahuan muncul karena interaksi antara siapa dan pengetahauannya bukan dari penemuan. Alasannya adalah proses-proses perseptual dan interpretatif individu penting dalam metode penelitian. Konsep Konsep-konsep dalam sebagian besar pendekatan praktis terhadap teori, cenderung tidak disajikan sebagai sesuatu yang universal. Konsep-konsep yang penting tidak bisa diukur secara operasional. Penjelasan Teori-toeri praktis menggunakan kebutuhan praktis sebagai sebuah dasar menjelaskannya.
Penghubung dibantu untukmendcapai tujuan di masa yang akan datang dengan mengikuti aturan-aturan atau norma-norma sosial tertentu yang memungkinkan untuk berfikir dalam sebuah situasi dan memilih dari susunan pilihan. Prinsip Prinsip-prinsip merupakan panduan untuk refleksi dan tindakan. If is moving. The question that should be on our mind now is what are the ingredients, components or variables which interact in the process of communications.
These are the source or Sender, or Encoder of message , the message, the channel and Medium, the Receiver, the Feedback and Noise. The source creates the message.
The receiver, on the other hand, is the entity or the person s to which the message is targeted — that is the message final destination. This act of responding to the message then completes the process of communication. Hence, when language is put into use, meaning facilitates an appropriate response that indicates that the message was understood.
Meaning also requires the understanding the contexts of interaction. By context we mean the environment — physical or psycho-sociological environment in which the communication takes place. Hence, we have symbolic representation only for things we experience in our environment — names are given to various experiences. Whorf-Sapir hypothesis Thus, language, which exists primarily as verbal and nonverbal codes, becomes an important part of communication.
The verbal codes are the spoken and the written words while the nonverbal codes are all symbols that are not words. So far, we believe you have gained some insights into the concept of communication — as a dynamic phenomenon, changing from time to time and never static.
It is informal as can be seen from a child learning how to talk and formal in a child learning the rudiments of grammar. It is a process — having no easily defined beginning and end.
Contexts of Communication The context of communication is a set of circumstance or a situation in which communication act takes place. In the field of communication, four of such contexts are recognized. They are the intrapersonal, interpersonal, public and mass communication contexts. These we mean by types or contexts of communication.
Thus, intrapersonal communication considers communication within oneself, while public communication involves the process of generating meaning in a situation where a simple source transmits a message to a number of receivers often range between 3 to 12 people, or more who give nonverbal and sometimes, question and answer feedback.
This kind of communication is recognized by its formality, structure and planning. Examples are lectures, convocations and religious services. On the other hand, mass communication is a context between a source and a large number of unseen receivers. In this kind of context, there is always a mediator between the source and the receiver.
The mediator is often in the communication technology such as television and radio. They are the channel and the method if distribution. Interpersonal communication context is the personal process of coordinating meaning between at least two people in a situation that allows mutual opportunities for both speaking and listening Pearson et al. Through interpersonal communication, people are able to establish relationships with others that include friendships and romantic relationships.
For example, messages sent and received over the Internet Yahoo! Dyadic and small-group communications are two subsets of interpersonal communication. Dyadic communication or two-person communication context includes both formal and informal communication events such as interview with an employer or a lecturer; talks with friends and relative and various other interactions that may occur in a fact-to-face situation. Small group communication is the interaction of a small group of people to achieve an interdependent goal Brilhart and Galanes, Small-group communication occurs in families, work groups, support groups, religious groups and study groups.
Communication scholars agree that two people are a dyad and more than two people are a small group if they have a common purpose, goal or mission. However, disagreement emerges about the maximum number of participants in a small group. Some say small group communication takes place in setting of between three and twelve individuals creating a different set of interactions other than public and mass communication.
Rather than a mere assumption of what goes on in the process of communication, scientists over the decades have made frantic efforts at theorizing and modeling communication events.
Hence, through this scientific approach scientists hope to make effective generalizations about the nature of human communication in the various contexts and equally make accurate predictions concerning the process and effects of communication. This becomes important considering the functional role of communication especially in the development of every facet of human society. Thus communication theories and models provide insight into the intricate structures and components of communication and consequently introducing various patterns as to how studies on these structures and systems should be conducted.
We have also drawn insights from Folarin and Severin and Tankard as well as recent online articles on the subject. In order not to make a repetitive effort of the subject, we have decided to summarize these theories and models in a schematic diagram and later comment on few important ones in turn.
It is important to state at this juncture that theories and models of communication are informed mostly by studies in the mass media. We have witnessed overlap in some of these theories and models, and how useful they are to various communication events are evident in these theories and models.
This is our own summary model of theories and model of communication derived from earlier contributions on this subject. Limited Effects e.
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